Research evidence must be collected, processed, and presented in ways that preserve its meaning and support the reported conclusions. Fabrication, falsification, and misleading manipulation of data, quotations, documents, or illustrations are unacceptable. Authors should be able to explain the provenance of material used in the analysis.

A traceable analytical record

Describe decisions that materially affect results, including exclusions, missing-data treatment, variable construction, transformations, coding rules, and model choices. Retain the relevant source records and versions, subject to ethical and legal obligations. The reported results should be linked to a documented sequence of evidence and analysis rather than an unexplained final file.

Correcting a source error, excluding an ineligible observation, or changing a coding rule may be justified. Explain such decisions and their effects. Do not selectively suppress contradictory evidence or undisclosed analyses to create a misleading account of the findings.

Qualitative and documentary evidence

Quotations should accurately reflect the source and its context. Mark omissions, translations, or necessary alterations transparently, while protecting participants. Do not combine distinct statements into a quotation that appears to have been spoken as one passage. Explain selection and interpretation of institutional and archival documents, including significant gaps in the available record.

Images and other source materials must not be altered in ways that change their evidential meaning. Any permitted processing or annotation should be described. Synthetic examples and generated material must remain distinguishable from observed or collected evidence.

Verification and protected material

Editors may request supporting data, code, source documentation, or an explanation of discrepancies. Authors should explain legitimate restrictions and consider feasible alternatives, including protected excerpts, aggregate checks, or authorized confidential access. Confidentiality must be maintained during any transfer or assessment; access requirements do not override consent or legal restrictions.

Errors after submission or publication

Notify the journal promptly if a significant error is found. Identify the affected results and assess whether the argument or conclusions change. Honest mistakes and suspected misconduct require different enquiries, but either may warrant a correction when the record is inaccurate. A substantial loss of confidence in findings may require retraction.

Sharing and documentation requirements appear in Research Data; linked notices follow the journal’s correction and integrity procedures.